Compare characters Aeneas and Turnus from the Aeneid by Virgil Essay

Compare characters Aeneas and Turnus from the Aeneid by Virgil - Essay Example Aeneas is the character with whom Vergil most identifies. He is the primary character in the legend and like Vergil; he approaches the world, even its hostilities, in an idealistic and prophetic manner. Aeneas is also Vergil’s self, facing the devils of a peremptory, wicked, outer world that commanded him to act and to face hard things; and he is Vergil’s self, guarded and guided by a voice of God in tones of an ultimate authority, his own mother’s. Vergil was brave with the courage that poets need, and he used the excitement of heroic tradition to sustain his courage to face the horrors of the world. (2) Aeneas, in addition to being influenced by his mother, unlike Vergil, was strongly identified with his father, Anchises, who saw him as becoming the ‘ancestor of Rome.’ Yet, Vergil’s greatness is no less foretold than Vergil’s in his works of literature. It is in the past, not only in Rome’s past, but that of his own that Vergil finds good and evil. There he also finds†¦powerful friends to help him†¦ and to be worshiped as heroes†¦as well as feelings like his own and lines already drawn, which could discipline and classify and organize, and so justify, these feelings. These include both feelings belonging to his present, which his own experience arouses, and also feelings that were more instinctive, as well as tendencies such as we all inherit from a past, those in which the experience has been wider than our own.(3) It is feelings like these that predestine Vergil to produce great works. It is also these feelings that, in addition to being a soldier and Roman leader, predestine Aeneas to be a romancer of women. While Vergil, no doubt jaded by his experiences in the world, finds romance in words, Aeneas finds romance through the waging of wars and the lives of the many women whom he comes in contact with while these wars are waged. The motherly love

Cross-cultural education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cross-cultural education - Essay Example Moreover, Eiser, Arnold and Ellis suggest that the nurse education should incorporate enhancing cross-cultural awareness, communication, and race. They argue that the knowledge shall boost the competency of physicians to deliver quality services that incorporate social and historical comprehension of a disorder (Eiser, Arnold and Glenn 185). Even though the past and present information is vital for determining and diagnosing, I think it is discriminatory to link specific conditions with African Americans past. The African Americans had ways of treating the diseases, but they are outdated. Hence, studies should address the changing circumstances and disease. However, it is prudent to acknowledge the African American views regarding the handling of the patients and their past health records. I concur with the authors in the section that they describe that cross-cultural education should investigate the conflicting paradigms for illness, issue of mistrust and aspects of conflicting cult ural norms. In this perspective, it is imperative to recognize African Americans social institutions, religious beliefs and practices and perceptions of life. A tolerable knowledge of the social concerns shall generate an environment that fosters unity and peace. Besides, it will minimize the gap between the perceived minority groups in the crucial sector. Conceivably, the authors of the article illustrated the differing viewpoints that hinder African Americans from accessing the health services.

UK Social Work Theories

UK Social Work Theories The essay is an analysis of theories underpinning and key elements of critical social work and its values. Furthermore I will explore Counselling as one of the areas of social work practice and how it is influenced by the critical social work approach in practice. I will include examples from practice experience and literature and also highlight the influence of inequalities, power and social divisions. The views of service users and their contribution towards the practice will also be taken into account in the essay. Social work in the UK dates back to the 19th as a community and charitable activity to support the disadvantaged and poor. From the charitable and community origins it developed in strength to a field that aims at challenging inequality, oppression; promote social inclusion/ social justice and independence Parrot (2002). Through these values and aims Social Work broadened its knowledge base and developed into Critical social work. Wooster (2002) supports the above origins when he mentions that Social work owes its origins to Christian morality than a commitment to social problems affecting individuals. Following the economic crisis in the UK in the 1970s due to escalating oil prices social issues like poor housing, unemployment, poverty and homelessness social work shifted and broadened its focus and tried to address social issues and problems. (Grimwood et al., (1995). Adams et al (2009) mentions that in attempting to address social problems, disadvantage and inequalities social work practitioners have drawn knowledge and ideas from various disciplines such as sociology, psychology, philosophy and politics. From this multi-disciplinary knowledge base the underpinning ideology was anti oppressive principle which provides theoretical tools to understand, intervene and respond to the complex experience of oppression. This means social work practitioners have a moral, ethical and legal responsibility to challenge inequalities and disadvantage. Critical practice can be traced and associated with radical social work in the 1960s-70s deriving ideas from Marxist theory Fook (1993). Radical social work upheld the following themes: structural analysis of personal problems, ongoing social critique mainly focusing on oppressive ideas/practice and goals of self emancipation and social change. Parallel to these traditions empowering and anti-oppressive practice to participation in research and community work. Several key principles were shared from radical critiques to present critical social work which are: challenging dominant forces and oppression in all forms, a critique of positivist ideas and the need to challenge dominant constructed ways of knowing by developing other ways of knowing. This would be achieved through recognising that knowledge may reflect reality but may also be socially constructed. In order to create more/new knowledge self reflection and interaction are essential tools using communication processes. Marx analysed the capital society he lived in Germany and argued that the structures within society derived from the economy and the changes in the industrial revolution influenced some people to be more powerful and others not. Individuals were restrained by the demands of Capitalism resulting in structure/agency problem at the expense of structure. Marx highlighted issues of class and class struggle where there is a struggle between powerful and powerless resulting in different societal classes. As such a situation prevails that those in power will seek to remain in power at whatever cost and means mostly exploitation of the powerless by depriving them of their opportunities and access to facilities. Rush (2004) further mentions that Marxist critical theory is not descriptive but a means of influencing social change by raising awareness of forces within society that brings inequality and highlighting how awareness can help individuals to overcome such forces and liberate themselves . Critical thinking is also linked to Marx and Socilogists from the Frankfurt School of Sociologists (Horkeimer (1979), Adorno (Adorno and Horkeimer, (1979) and Marcuse (1964) from the 1920s/30s and Habermas (1984, 1987) writing in the late twentieth century. These theorists held that social interpretation was based on assumptions of a fixed social order mainly derived from religion, politics and social beliefs. When this social order started being rejected and challenged. Sociologists argued that knowledge of the envinonment makes individuals more effective (Gerth and Mills (1948) and Durkeim (1972) established that if we understand how social relationships work we would be able to achieve our objectives in society. This is how critical thinking in modernist way is about and it was termed modernism but has expanded and embraced other theories concerned with transformation and social change. Gray and Webb (2008) argue that critical theory is shifting from the Frankfurt school but at th e same time it has not defined its critical base. (Allan et al 2003; Fook 2002; Healey 2000) acknowledge that there is tension in defining critical theory as it comprises different theories, some argue that it is an umbrella term that encompasses a range of theories and approaches including Marxist, radical, feminist, anti-racist, anti-oppressive, anti-discriminatory, post colonial , critical constructivist and structural perspectives. This suggests that there are many theories although different they all try to understand the relationship between an individual and society. For the purpose of clarity and continuity I will at this stage define critical social work practice and highlight its values. Adams et al (2009) view critical practice as involving exercising ones judgement in a reflective and diverse manner. It involves exploring different options in a situation or actions in judging the best way to address issues. The practitioner would review their ideas, perspectives and options of others before deciding a best way forward. This is underpinned by the fact of accepting change and continuity as practitioners encounter different situations and ideas. Payne et al (2002) further mentions that in order to fulfil the requirements of critical practice which include liberation and empowerment social workers need an open mind, reflective stance that encompasses diverse perspectives, experience and assumptions. This would result in acknowledging individual differences, equal opportunity and respect. Fook and Garner (2007) further identify three aspects of c ritical practice which are critical thinking, critical action and reflexivity as essential tools to apply when seeking social justice and change. In trying to address social injustices and inequality social work uses a variety of skills and knowledge based on theory perspective and methodology. This empowers social workers to put in place intervention which is appropriate to individual circumstances. This intervention empowers social workers with skills to engage service users to bring positive outcomes. Critical social work is also informed by values which overlap the traditional social work values. The value of social justice is upheld from the fact that critical practice is a moral activity and as such professionals are also moral agents. This is further supported by Thompson (2006) when he suggests that Society comprises of a diverse range of people in which social divisions emerge which in turn forms the societal structures which networks relationships, institutions and groupings. These groupings determine, control and regulate the distribution of power, privilege, status and opportunities resulting in social stratification and dimensions. From these groupings however it is important to mention that unfairness, inequality and oppression is witnessed in the group of people who are vulnerable and marginalised. From these theories we can trace the ideas of critical perspective and acknowledge that the powerless can influence policy society views from the oppressors. The theoretical development implemented by service users was the theorising of disability from the medicalised interpretation to social model of disability. This shift was championed by disabled peoples movements to express how they felt and were treated for more than a century. This shift and theory influenced societal attitudes, influenced policies and to some extent changed societal attitudes in UK and abroad. (Abberley,1998; Barnes, 1998). (Morris, 1993) supports this by mentioning that the disability movement has overhauled societal perceptions and upheld disabled peoples rights to live independently,promote anti discriminatory practice, fairness and equal opportunities. Harris and White (2009) further explored events and changes within the welfare state from administering to managing the welfare state. They observed that the Conservative 1979 -1997 and Labour 1997-2010 were influenced by neo-liberalist ideas. This idea upheld the belief that market was superior to the state and as such professionals including social workers were meant to implement competitive government policy and approaches to meet global standards. These changes affected the vulnerable people in society as well because managers had been given the powers to speak on their behalf. These changes, debates and contradictions have put Social Work practice into a contested dilema profession. Although this definition states that Social work is a profession that promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. (International Federation of Social Workers, 2000 p1). Fook (2002) also argues that critical social work practice should be concerned with promoting a society without domination, exploitation and oppression. In order to achieve this practitioners need to reflect, reconstruct and unpack more processes for change through careful negotiation within the dominant framework. Parton et al (1997) points out that the present political environment is dominantly global, modernized and authoritarian. As such policies are informed and regulated by market principles which prescribes and narrows professional boundaries which affects the rights of service users. In order to achieve their objectives social workers need to challenge and resist the authoritarian elements by employing critical practice. Adams et al (1998) further identifies that Systems theory is another major theoretical source underpinning social work. The systems theory emphasised that peoples existence is determined by the environment they live or grow in. It highlighted that peoples problems are a result of how they interact with their resource systems which are either formal or informal. The informal include friends, neighbours and colleagues. The formal include support groups/ social clubs and associations. The public/ societal include housing ,hospitals, work and school which provides certain structure or particular function in society. The system theory encourages growth and provides a wider range of solutions to problems by identifying areas of improvement or needing improvement. However it is said not to be acknowledging power differences within society and with different roles. Furthermore (Coulshed and Orme, 1998) pointed out that the nature of diversity in society makes it difficult to be entirely depe ndent on one theory or approach. Different situations and different circumstances entails different approaches through reflective practices and perspectives. Many critical social theorists have challenged the existence of a social order and have questioned social order as evidenced in the work of Habermas (1984, 1987) who distinguishes between the system and the lifeworld which interact and sometimes conflict with each other. The system represents the structures like the government departments, transnational companies emerging from globalisation, ideas promoted by communicative reasoning, education and media.All these structures are relaying a world view through different reasoning. aAs such Social work is not excluded as an agent of systematic managerialism in agencies. (Fook 2002 and Gardner 2007) further highlighted alternative forms of critical theory which are feminism and post modernism. They have different views from Marxist views and the Frankfurt sociologists in that they focus on the understanding that the world reflects personal experience and social historical context. They argue that personal experience constructs and is constructed by the world we live in. They advocate to listening to peoples experiences (narratives) seriously and from these we can hear how they view and experience the world in different ways. This is supported by the feminists when they highlight that the narration of experiences by individuals gives us a clue on how they construct the world and how they want to engage with their problems and situations. Thus postmodernists say there is an alternative way of viewing the world than what it seems to be. Postmodernity argue there is a different way of viewing the world and different ways to deal with societal prtoblemsa hence critical social work seeks for different options and take the best way forward. In order for all these theories to be implemented there should be contact with individuals in society who experience inequality and disadvantage. Furthermore it is also important to mention at this point that social work intervention and practice is broad and spreads into other disciplines. Groupwork, Counselling, Advocacy and Assessment are examples of different forms of practising social work. I will not focus on the broadness of disciplines but will focus on the aims of the essay which are to explore how the critical social work approach influences counselling. Counselling requires a lot of skills and approaches as it seeks to address and resolve individual dilemmas, decision making and resolving issues. According to BAC counselling is a more deliberate activity and in its definition of the term the British Association for Counselling spells out the distinction between a planned and a spontaneous event. People become engaged in counselling when a person, occupying regularly or temporarily the role of counsellor, offers or agrees explicitly to offer time, attention and respect to another person or persons temporarily in the role of client. According to Dryden (2004:40), it is described as principled relationship characteristics by the application of one or more psychological theories and a recognised set of communication skills, modified by experience, intuition and other interpersonal factors, to clients intimate concerns, problems or aspirations. Its predominant ethos is one of facilitation rather than of advice-giving or coercion. It may be of very brief or long duration, take place in an organisational or private practice setting and may or may not overlap with practical, medical and other matters of personal welfare. From the above definitions and tracing the historically it is evident social workers were /and are still engaged in counselling as highlighted by the Barclay report in the early 1980s which mentioned that it was essential for social workers to engage in counselling as it helped to engage with individuals to help them manage their problems, worries and anxieties. Barclay Committee, (1982). This is no longer the situation today as noted by Brearley (1995) political, administrative, legislative changes and ideologies have affected the relationship between counselling and social; work. Some social work practitioners are in dilemma as to when they can do counselling or not and where to start with counselling and when to stop. Because social workers operate in a legislative, organisational, ideological, value and ethical context it is becoming increasingly difficult to engage in counselling without pushing boundaries. Furthermore the economic environment, budget cuts and lack of resources makes it difficult to manoeuvre and employ uncontested interventions. However despite the above constraints social workers at some point carry out counselling as not carrying it out would render their job inadequate and inefficient. There are a number of Counselling theories which are Person centred, existential, Cognitive behavioural (CBT),motivational, humanistic, psychodynamic, Karpmans (1969) Drama triangle and eclectic and intergrative approaches. Some of the theories have been criticised as inadequate and resource straining. One approach that is complimentary to social work is the eclectic/ integrative approach. Integrative theory is a method of intervention that meets the needs presented by the client and specific circumstances. The benefits of this approach are that it is flexible and adoptable to client needs. McLeod (2003) supports this statement when he mentions theapproach enables the counsellor to choose the best option and techniques from a range of theories to meet the client needs. It can mean employing different elements from different theories to blend them into a new suitable model or theory.This compliments with one of the social work theories of eclecticism which seeks to intergrate different theories to intervene ( quote) It can be argued that the aims of social work and the aims of counselling are both focusing on individuals and their interaction with the society, problems they face and how they solve them. As Egan 2006 puts it and complimented by Coulshed and Orme 2006 social workers adopt skills that compliment counselling skills some of them are empathy or understanding,respect, self knowledge and acceptance and honest. Although there are criticisms on Egans work as being ignorant of psychodynamic ideas meaning it has limited application and effectiveness. A reflective practitioner would seek to promote social justice, anti -oppressive and anti-discvriminatory practice based on knowledge to promote inclusive practice. Both professions are being challenged by increasing literature developing and need to engage in best practice and critical practice to reach all individuals and communities. My privilege as a social worker working with clients is that I have acquired knowledge and on values of social work issues and intervention. I also have a black African background which has some conflicting values to social work. I will focus on the social work values to overcome any prejudices and biases which may jeopardise my work. I also have the law on my side which will give me power to intervene and practice. From my experience as a caseworker at RA I used counselling as a technique to working with clients. Clients from different background accessed the service to resolve their immigration matters. Mostly the approach we used was person centred approach which meant clients were treated as individuals and given advice relating to their immigration issues My identity gives me a privilege because I have my own values. I am black African student social worker. I nave my values, knowledge and prejudices which can impact on the way I will relate with clients when in practice. I will not allow my own values and prejudices influence my practice. I will engage in reflective practice and use the critical social work approach discussed in this essay. Clients have their own views, way of life and interpretation of the world. My role is to promote social justice to the people I work with in order for them to have choice and independence. . This is supported by Carrniol 2005 when they mention that it is important for social workers to deepen their conscience into their social location and privilege as the first step towards empowering clients and challenging oppression. In my previous role as caseworker for refugees and asylum seekers I worked and experienced that men from other cultures do not cry because of their religion. My belief values say if a person is hurting they cry. Also handshakes are part of my culture to greet but others do not handshake. Appointments with Muslims on Friday afternoon were not appropriate as they attend mosque. I would seek to give appointments on another day. Giving Muslims women make caseworkers to counsel they wont talk give them women? I will signpost people to their own community groups to give help and support. Once you listen to somebodys problems you are counselling. I overcame all these by putting the needs of clients first before my own. Privilege as described by Bailey (1998:109) is systemically, conferred advantages individuals enjoy for being members of a dominants few with access to resources and institutional power that are beyond the common advantages of marginalised citizens Sidanius and Pratto 1999 further suggest that an individuals privilege is derived from their membership or association to privileged groups rather than their personal achievement. According to Ixer 199 it is important to examine privilege critically in two ways i.e. how it benefits the privileged person and how it affects the individual who does not possess it. In critical social work practice social worker need to reflect upon what causes privilege and explore the socio political dimensions of an individuals problem than focus on their capability to cope. (Fook 1999 Morley 2004) Carniola (2005) observed that social workers is in the right direction of developing critical consciousness about the psychological impact of oppression on individuals. He further expressed that there is concern on the degree of awareness among social workers on the impact of privilege or dominant status on individuals subjectivities and world views. Rossitter (2000) echoes the same sentiments when he mentions that the position/ impact and ways in which professionals engage with clients is overlooked and underestimated as they possess a certain class in the form of gender, race, and sexual privilege. It is important to highlight at this stage the values of critical social work practice. It is important to mention that values are in different categories ranging from personal, organisational, ethical, institutional political and religious. Values can conflict each other as well and socially constructed. Traditional Social work values and critical social work values overlap and are based on Biestek 1961 and consists of the following: Individualism, non judgemental, self determination, purposeful expression and controlled emotional development. In post modernity terms these can be interpreted to promotion of social justice, emancipation, anti-oppressive, anti-discriminatory, empowerment, non judgemental and respect and dignity. As discussed these are values that underpi critical social work for it to exist. Critical social work as discussed explores the best way forward to individuals problems and seeks to listen and engage with the individual to tell their story and work in partnership to find the best way forward. The limitation is critical social work is surrounded by external forces which are beyond it control. For example resources in the current economic climate globally and at home. It is also criticised as its values and origins are Eurocentric and do not represent universal circumstances as what seems to work in UK might not necessarily work in Afro/ Asian communities. For example the issue of confidentiality is valued and essential in UK and Europe whereas in Afro Asian cultures they value kinship support in times of distress. However they would not want anyone else outside the kinship clique to know about their situation. This brings inrterpretation problems to confidentialtity. Having explored critical social work practice and theories underpinning it it is important to acknowledge that there is continuos transformation and contest within the academic field and socio-political arena. This is greatly impacting on vulnerable people and how they are treated and marginalised in issues affecting their lives. If the values of critical social work could bre fulfilled and the theories underpinning it are intergrated social work and counselling would be forces for change to promote social justice. Abberley, P. (1998), The Spectre At The Feast:Disabled people and social theory, in, Shakespeare, T., (editor), (1998), The Disability Reader: Social Science Perspectives, London, Cassell, pp79-93. Adams. R, Dominelli. L and Payne, M. (2009) Critical Practice in Social Work 2nd Edition Basingstoke,Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Barnes, C. (1998), The Social Model Of Disability: A sociological phenomenon ignored by sociologists?, in Shakespeare, T., (editor), (1998), The Disability Reader: Social Science Perspectives, London, Cassell, pp65-78. Barnes C and Mercer G. (1997), (editors), Doing Disability Research, Leeds, The Disability Press. (Fook, J, Gardner, F (2007) Practising Critical Reflection: A Resource Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Open University Press, New York). Harris, J. and White, V. (2009) Modernising Social Work Critical Considerations Bristol: Policy Press. Morris, J. (1993), Independent Lives: Community care and disabled people, Basingstoke, Macmillan. Beresford, P. (1997), The Last Social Division?: Revisiting the relationship between social policy, its producers and consumers, in, May, M., Brunsdon, E., Craig, G., (editors), Social Policy Review 9, London, Social Policy Association, pp203-226. Beresford P and Campbell J. (1994) Disabled People, Service Users, User Involvement And Representation, Disability And Society, Volume 9, No 3, pp315-325. Beresford, P. and Croft, S. (1993), Citizen Involvement: A practical guide for change, Basingstoke, Macmillan. Beresford, P., Stalker, K. and Wilson, A. (1997), Speaking For Ourselves: A bibliography, London, Open Services Project in association with the Social Work Research Centre, University of Stirling. Beresford, P. and Turner, M. (1997), Its Our Welfare, Report of the Citizens Commission on the Future of the Welfare State, London, National Institute for Social Work. Beresford, P. (1999) Storming The Millennium, Lawrence and Wishart, London, Campbell, P. (1996), The History Of The User Movement In The United Kingdom, in T Heller, J Reynolds, R Gomm, R Muston and S Pattison, (editors), Mental Health Matters, Basingstoke, Macmillan. Campbell, J. and M, Oliver, M. (1996), Disability Politics: Understanding our past, changing our future, Basingstoke, Macmillan. Coulshed, V. and Orme, J. (1998), Social Work Practice: An introduction, third edition, Basingstoke, Macmillan. (Rush, 2004:10) Rush, F. (Ed). (2004). The cambridge companion to critical theory. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Croft, S. and Beresford, P. (1993), Getting Involved: A practical manual for change, London, Open Services Project/Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Croft, S. and Beresford, P. (1998), Postmodernity And The Future Of Welfare: Whose critiques, whose social policy? in John Carter, (editor), (1998), Postmodernity And The Fragmentation Of Welfare, London, Routledge, pp103-120. Croft, S. and Beresford, P, (1996), The Politics Of Participation, in, Taylor, D. (editor), Critical Social Policy: A reader, London, Sage, pp175-198. Davies, M. (editor), (1997), The Blackwell Companion To Social Work, Oxford, Blackwell. Evans C and Fisher M, (1999), Collaborative Evaluation With Service Users: Moving towards user controlled research, in Shaw, I. and Lishman,J. (editors), Evaluation And Social Work Practice, London, Sage. Giddens, A. (1998), The Third Way: The renewal of social democracy, Cambridge, Polity Press. Harding, S. (1993), Rethinking Standpoint Epistemology: What is strong objectivity?, in Alcoff, L. and Potter, E. (editors), Feminist Epistemologies, London, Routledge. Jones, C. 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Essay --

Cognitive Psychology and its influence on Everyday Behaviour Throughout the ages, humans have had an inherent interest in studying the complex area of human behaviour, even before psychology was established as a science. Because the study of behaviour is so broad and multifaceted, its scientific study poses particular challenges. Therefore, it can be beneficial to approach the scientific study of human behaviour from the perspective of cognitive psychology. This is the study of cognition, the mental processes that underlie human behaviour (Ling & Cattling, 2012). This paper will explore the extent to which cognitive psychology can explain and predict everyday behaviour by critically examining a number of cognitive theories, and demonstrating their application in real world settings. For the purposes of this essay, I have decided to pick three everyday behaviours which tend to be common in the lives of university students, and approach the analysis from this angle. The essay begins by exploring the area of multitasking behaviours, and cognitive theories surrounding the area of divided attention and its effects on daily life. From here, the phenomenon of binge drinking among college students is discussed, in particular the effect it has upon remembering in an everyday context. Finally, the tendency of college students to spend large amounts of time listening to music is evaluated, with a particular focus on why it is that music can make individuals feel a particular way, tapping into the area of cognition and emotion. This essay will discuss in detail the contribution of cognitive psychology to our understanding of these behaviours. College students in the 21st century are a part of the so-called digital generation. Technology has... ...tion regulation is a crucial motivator for listening to music (Lonsdale & North, 2011). As such, cognitive theories are able to predict that listening to music has the ability to evoke an emotional response in student listeners. This essay explores the ability of cognitive psychology to explain and predict everyday behaviours. It explores three entirely different behaviours common in the everyday life of a student, multitasking, binge drinking and listening to music. For each of these behaviours, a general background is given to explain the behaviour. This is followed in each case by an analysis of some of the key cognitive theories which explain these behaviours. Finally, examples of the behaviour being carried out in the daily life of the college student are discussed, thus displaying the ability of cognitive psychology to successfully predict everyday behaviour.

Cooperative Learning Essay

What is cooperative learning? Cooperative learning can be characterized in the following Chinese proverb: Tell me, and I’ll forget Show me, and I’ll remember Involve me, I’ll learn. Cooperative learning can be defined as a strategy for the classroom that is used to increase motivation and retention, to help students develop a positive image of self and others, to provide vehicles for critical thinking and problem solving, and to encourage collaborative social skills (Calderon 1987) Assumptions about cooperative learning 1. Cooperative skills must be learned. Humans are not born instinctively knowing how to cooperate with others. In the classroom, students will not automatically start cooperating as soon as you put them into small groups. Cooperative group skills must be taught – just like skills in math, reading, writing. Because most students have not been taught to work effectively with others, they can not do it. Traditional forms of education do not encourage cooperative activity; students work independently and compete for recognition with their peers (Slavin 1979). 2. The physical and spatial arrangement of the classroom affects cooperative work. If students in EFL classes are to cooperate, activities must be structured so that students can cooperate and talk to each other. If they want to have a conversation with someone, they can’t talk facing back-to-back or front-to-back. They need to talk face-to-face. 3. Peer support and group dynamics are the keys to successful group work. The members in the group are the ones who determine how well the group will function. †¢ Will the group share responsibilities or will some group members monopolize the time? †¢ Will they respect each other? †¢ Will low-performing group members be included? These are all problems that must be solved with the cooperation and support of peers in the group and through well-structured teacher guidance. There must be a careful balance between pressure for learning cooperative skills and support for doing so. The earlier students can be taught these skills, the easier it will be for them to learn how to cooperate (Johnson and Johnson). Strategies for group dynamics Christison and Bassano (1987) have identified 6 strategies for helping teachers understand group dynamics and promote peer support in the second/foreign-language classroom. Strategy 1: Restructuring. Restructuring activities usually require students to interact physically as a group. Students are given specific instructions for carrying out the task. There is minimal participation by the teacher. These activities help students adjust to future small-group, cooperative experiences by breaking down student expectations for the traditional teacher-controlled classroom. Strategy 2 : One-Centered. These activities put one student in the ‘spotlight’ for a few minutes. Activities are structured so that each student is given individual attention for a limited period of time. For aggressive students, this â€Å"spotlight focus† reaffirms their importance to the group. They are less apt to â€Å"steal show† from he other group members when their position has been reaffirmed. For shy students, these successful, one-centered experiences increase the likelihood of contributions in the follow-up discussions and in additional activities later on. Strategy 3: Unified Group. Unified-group activities promote cooperation in the group. Students begin to think about group goals instead of individual goals. Praise and positive reinforcement are given to promote group success. These activities require the participation of each group member. No members may â€Å"bow out†. If someone chooses not to participate, the group can not be successful. Strategy 45: Small group. Small-group activities are more loosely structured than pair activities. They require patience, motivation, and good listening habits. The teacher acts only as a facilitator, so the responsibility for success lies with the group itself. These activities help students develop techniques for fair group interaction. Strategy 5: Large Group. Large-group activities are similar to small group activities in their objectives and structure. The only difference is the inclusion of a larger number of students requires more skills among group members in fair group interaction. Strategy 4: Dyad. These activities give students the opportunity to work one-to-one with others in the class. Through these activities, students become better acquainted with each other and begin to feel more comfortable sharing personal ideas and views. Almost any activity can be structured . for pair work. Steps in teaching cooperative skills There are four steps that teachers must follow in teaching cooperative skills. 1. Students need to understand why it is they are doing things differently and how it will help them reach their goals. †¢ Explain why they are doing cooperative work †¢ Do brainstorm session on the possible value of a cooperative group work †¢ Place posters around the room to remind learners of the benefits of cooperative group work. 2. Students must be aware of the necessary skills for successful group work in order to know what they are supposed to do. The teacher should demonstrate and model the skill to further clarify the points to the students. Concentrate on one skill at a time. 3. Students must practice the skill. The major responsibilities teachers have in cooperative learning are to design and set up practice situations. 4. Students need to process the skills they have practiced. Processing means that students need to become aware of what exactly it is they have practiced and to evaluate how successful they have been in the practice of the skills. Levels of cooperative skills In cooperative learning, setting up practice sessions is the chief responsibility of the teacher. According to Johnson and Johnson (1975), there are 4 levels of cooperative skills that teachers can focus on. These skills can be categorized in the following way. 1. Forming. Forming skills are directed towards organizing the group and establishing behavioral norms. Groups who have mastered the skills of forming can move into their groups quickly and quietly, use quiet voices, stay with their groups for the duration of activity, encourage participation within the group, use group members’ names. Teachers who claim that cooperative group work is too noisy or takes too much time are working with students who have not been allowed to master the skill of forming. 2. Functioning. Functioning skills are directed to completing tasks and maintaining good relationships within a group. Groups must understand, f. e. , what the time limits are and how the activity should be carried out within their groups, step by step. Activities that focus on the skill of functioning give learners a chance to ask for help, paraphrase previous comments, clarify, explain, and express support. 3. Formulating. The skill of formulating is directed towards helping learners to develop a deeper understanding of the material being studied and to develop better reasoning strategies. Activities that focus on the skill of formulating help learners develop the following strategies: †¢ Summarizing out loud. †¢ Adding important information to the summary †¢ Pointing out information that may not have been summarized properly †¢ Relating material from a previous activity to the one being focused on 4. Fermenting. The highest-level skill for cooperative groups is fermenting. This skill involves helping learners explore more thoroughly the material the material they have been exposed to. When students can begin to challenge each other’s ideas, to explore different ways of looking at the material and reconceptualize these ideas, they are using the skills of fermenting. Benefits from using cooperative techniques. †¢ Academic achievement. Most studies that high, average, and low achievers gain equally from the cooperative experience. Wheeler (1977) found that the student affect weighed heavily on the results. Studies also supported the concept that the more tightly structured methods of cooperative group work will have the largest effects on basic skills. Higher-order cognitive skills are best improved by the more open-ended methods used in cooperative learning. †¢ Self-esteem. Through cooperative learning techniques, students can become real partners in the learning enterprise. Since most consequential problems are solved via collaboration, students who learn to work together in an educational setting are better prepared to meet life’s obligations. Through cooperative learning techniques learners are asked to do things in FLT classroom that they are asked to do in real life – take charge of and responsibility for their own learning. Co-operative learning occurs when students work collaboratively towards a common goal (Panitz, 1996) Achievements are positively correlated with the other cooperating students. Students work together in small clusters or groups. Effective co-operative learning promotes–positive interdependence – a feeling of connection with other members of the group as they accomplish a common goal – individual accountability – every member of the group is held accountable for the group’s achievements – face to face interaction – group members engage at close range and are influenced by each other’s verbal communication – social skills – students become aware of the human interaction skills involved in effective group cooperation – group processing – groups may reflect and discuss how well they are functioning as a unit and how effective their working relationships are developed. Recommended literature: 1. Teacher development making the right moves (Selected articles from the English Teaching forum 1989-1993) Thomas Kral 2. Jean Brewster and Gail Ellis. The Primary English Teacher’s Guide. (Penguin English, 2003). 3. Opal Dunn. Beginning English with young children. Macmillan publishers LTD, 1993 4. Daniel A. Prescott, Ed. D. The child in the educative process, McGraw-hill book company, inc. , 1957. 5. Diane Phillips, Sarah Burwood and Helen Dunford, Oxford University Press, 2005.

Factors that Led to the Industrial Development of the United States 1816 †1845 Essay

The industrial development of the United States from 1816 to 1845 was dramatic and incredibly expedited. This leads many in the modern era to look back to examine what factors contributed to such growth and expansion. There were many factors and the most important are worth noting. see more:industrialization resulted in what changes to american society? In the previous century, the United States was mostly a farming based economy. While farms would still remain a major component of the economy in the 1800’s, the development of factories (Particularly in the north) greatly expanded the industrialization of the nation. Even in farming communities, â€Å"scaled down† automated systems would dramatically alter society. The development of cigarette rolling machines, for example, helped increase cigarette production (and tobacco farming output) enormously. Another major contributing factor to the development of industry was the great expansion of transportation. In particular, the creation of the railroad system would essentially make interstate commerce and industrialization expand far more rapidly than it would without the railroads. Also contributing to this facet of industrialization was the development of turnpikes and canals. Really, the expansion of transportation methods had significant impact in the industrialization of the United States. Urbanization was also a factor in the industrial development of the United States. Basically, metropolitan areas had become enormously crowded due to the need for a huge labor force in the textiles industry. Eventually, this led to sanitation problems which soon led to innovations in maintaining sanitation and pollution. These innovations helped develop the mindset that one needed to rely on industrial and automated solutions to problems due to lower costs and greater efficiency. Of course, there were many more factors that led to the expansion of the industrialized society. However, the growth of factories, transportation, automation, and urban living were among the most important factors. Bibliography Zinn, Howard (2005). A People’s History of the United States: 1492 to Present .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   New York, NY: Harper Perennial Modern Classics .